A principle, known as the equation of flow , describes how the speed of a substance changes as it moves through a pipe . Essentially, it asserts that for an incompressible liquid, the mass flow rate remains unchanged along a streamline . Mathematically, this becomes expressed as A₁V₁ = A₂V₂, where A

Thomson's Plum Pudding model, while groundbreaking for its time, faced several criticisms as scientists developed a deeper understanding of atomic structure. One major restriction was its inability to explain the results of Rutherford's gold foil experiment. The model assumed that alpha particles wo